Immigration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Immigration - Essay Example In the Western Countries, the magnitude of immigration has been comparatively high, and the example of America will effectively illustrate the altitude of international immigration. â€Å"All Americans are immigrants or descendants of immigrants. We may not often think of ourselves this way, but the description is literally and absolutely true, because everyone who has ever lived in America came from someplace else.† (Purcell, xi) Therefore, immigration is a global reality, and the facts and figures of international immigration illustrate how crucial this issue is. It is essential to comprehend that the reasons and benefits of immigration are closely related in the contemporary context, because it is mainly due to the benefits of immigration that people move their place of residence from a particular country to another, permanently. The most fundamental benefits of immigration include economic gains, progress of cultural diversity, improvement in the standard of living of immi grants, a younger workforce, and skilled workers.

The Criminal Justice System And Race Criminology Essay

The Criminal Justice System And Race Criminology Essay Conceptions of race within the criminal justice system have always been a controversial issue. Indeed, there is no denying that in terms of prison population ethnic minorities are grossly overrepresented: despite making up only 2% of the total population of Britain, black people still make up 15% of the population of prisons (Ashworth). If one assumes that these statistics represent overt racism within the administration of the criminal justice system then calls for reform and possibility of change will be high, however there has been a tendency to see these statistics as presenting the evidence of an irreconcilable problem, of deeper seated decay within, not just in the lower echelons of the criminal justice system, but society as a whole (Chelitotis and Liebling). If this is so then the answer to whether the criminal justice system can be made to operate equitably in relation to race may require a process of deeper reforms. It is necessary to assess first the query of whether racism exists within the system and if so, to what extent. Bowling argues that there exists an either, or debate; whether the overrepresentation in the prison population is the result of a higher rate of black people committing offences, or, conversely, the result of an accumulation of bias throughout the criminal process. Waters, in his early article Race and the Criminal Justice Process, suggests that the debate can be further defined as those that fall into the legal factors camp, who believe that the reason for differences custodial sentence decisions are legal factors such as severity of offence and previous criminal record (which may in themselves be the result of broader structural and economic factors such as unemployment and poverty) and that these variables quite satisfactorily explain the predominance of black people in prison. One the other hand the extra-legal factors camp argue that over and above the racial discrimin ation experienced in society as a whole, black people receive unfair and inferior treatment by virtue of the ethnicity at the hands of a predominantly white justice system.Oxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com The research conducted by Hood would seem to suggest that there are in existence some extra legal factors and therefore discrimination in sentencing. Hood found that after samples had been matched on variables predictive of custodial sentences (e.g. seriousness of offence, previous convictions, employment, and other pre-sentence report findings) there was a 5% greater chance of being handed a custodial sentence if you were black, and that this difference (which also resulted in black defendants being sentenced for 3 months longer and Asians 9 months longer where a not guilty plea was entered). However Ashworth highlights the fact that Hoods research does not account for the fact that more black people enter guilty pleas, choose to come to the crown court where sentences given are often harsher and may disproportionately become involved in more serious crime. Thus the study is not conclusive that there does not exist a whole host of other factors why ethnic minorities may come to be w ithin the system in the first place. Indeed, Von Hirsch and Roberts in their reflections on the Hood study highlight the problems inherent in the assumption of a level playing field of the variables chosen. For example, with employment: there is evidence that black people suffer from disadvantage in the labour market, so to take this into account when sentencing would amount to an indirect form of discrimination. Thus there are clearly deeper roots of discrimination which cumulatively result in the discrepancies seen. Chelitotis and Liebling argue that differences in levels and patterns of offending may result from a vicious crime circle of stereotyping black people as more crime prone. This leads to over-policing ethnic minority neighbourhoods, thereby drawing more ethnic minorities into the criminal justice net, consequently extending their criminal records and meaning they are more likely to be sentenced severely. They are also therefore more likely to be re-targeted by the polic e, resulting, again, in increasingly punitive sentencing when they are reconvicted. Thus it would seem the problem is not merely in the overt form of discrimination, but exists throughout the system, perhaps even worsening the lower the visibility level becomes. One only needs to take a look at the stop and search statistics to see this borne out, black people being 6.5 times more likely to be stopped and Oxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com ), leading to s comment that ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected. However, once again the picture is not so clear cut; it can be argued that what the figures actually represent is differences in the type of crime committed, with ethnic minorities being more involved in street crime such as drug offences and therefore more likely to be stopped and searched in suspicion of such relatively visible activity. This is further exacerbated by social and demographic factors and by differences in work and leisure life which mean that not only are minorities in greater numbers in areas and at times where searches occur, but that more searches occur in the urban areas in which they live, in which unemployment and social deprivation are high (. Nevertheless the wide discretion accorded to police in such cases means that the prevalence of minority groups in the figures suggests some form of racism. searched than white people, and Asians twice as likely (Home Office 2005),given that the majority ofthese initial stops do not lead to anyfurther action(87%), it would seemto suggest that this is merely evidence of discriminatoryracial profilingand stereotyping.Whilst the basis of such actions is of s1 ofPACE (which permits police to stop and search with onlyreasonable suspicion)and s60 CJPOA (which permits searches without suspicion where seriousviolence is anticipated or to searchfor weapons), andtherefore essentiallylegal, its exercise can be seen as targeted (Quinton), leading to Reiners comment that ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected.However,once again the picture is not so clear cut;it can be argued that what the figures actually represent is differences in the type of crime committed,withethnic minorities being more involved in street crime such as drug offencesand thereforemore likely to be stopped and searched in suspicion of suchrelatively visibleactivit y. This is further exacerbated by social and demographicfactors and by differences in work and leisure life which mean thatnot only are minorities in greater numbers in areas and at times where searches occur, butthatmore searches occur in the urban areas in which they live, in whichunemploymentand social deprivation are high (Philips). Nevertheless the widediscretion accorded to police in such cases means that the prevalenceofminority groups in the figures suggests some formof racism. Indeed, the Macpherson Inquiry into the Stephen Lawrence affair was elucidatory on the existenceof institutional racism within the police system,defined byMacphersonas the collective failure of an organisation to providean appropriateand professionalservice to people because of their colour,culture or ethnic origin, it can be seen detected in the processes, attitudes andbehaviour which amountto unwitting prejudice, ignorance,thoughtlessnessand racist stereotypingwhich disadvantages ethnic minorities and thereforewould accountfor the disproportionate representation ofblacks in the systemand for the high level of racist incidents detected (police recorded racistincidents have increased dramatically from4,383 incidents in 1988 to 52,694 in2004-Home Office). WhilstLeahighlights that Macphersons discussion oninstitutional racismfails to locate with sufficientprecision its roots within thestructure of operational policy and the relationship between policeand minority Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com too asserts that institutional racism does exist, and that it stems not only from the occupational culture of the police and the particular forms of contact they have with ethnic minorities, but also from the belief that they are dangerous classes. Stopping and searching therefore represents a form of generalised surveillance of those who they believe to have little political capital. In these ways Lea argues that racism does arise from the normal functioning of the police system, a sentiment that was echoed by a comment from the Director General of the Prison Service 2001 when he said that the prison is an institutionally racist institution which reflects an institutionally racist white society(). communities,Leatoo asserts that institutional racismdoes exist,and that itstems notonly from the occupational culture of the police and the particularforms of contact theyhave with ethnic minorities, but also fromthe belief thatthey are dangerous classes.Stopping andsearching therefore represents aformof generalised surveillance of those who they believe to have little politicalcapital. In these ways Lea argues that racism does arisefrom the normalfunctioning of the police system, a sentiment that was echoed by a commentfrom the Director General of the Prison Service 2001 when he said that theprison is an institutionally racist institution which reflects an institutionally racistwhite society(Lea). Thus it can be seen that a complex interplay of socio-economic, demographic,institutional, structuraland culturalfactors, alongside direct and indirect racialdiscrimination (Philips) are responsiblefor the overrepresentation anddiscriminatory outcomes evident in the system.Edgar and Martinconcur,suggesting that in the context ofdiscussion on discriminatory treatment withinprisons, the experiences of ethnic minorities should be see in the context ofexpectations which might have arisen fromcontact with other criminal justiceagencies. Further,Wacquentnotes that prison confines groups endowed with negative symbolic capital, and that their stigmatisation constitutes part oftherelationship between the confined and thosein authority. Just as the prison,heargues, may mirror external macro-socialtrends, so too can it lead to theirexistence by stigmatising and curtailing the life chances of ethnic minoritiesfurther. Thus once again,discrimination can be seen to be adeep-seatedissue, and one wh ich is not necessarily adequately addressed by combatingthe administration of the laws.Waters, in his article, expresses the need todistinguish between concepts ofequality and equity.Indeed, it can be seenthat equality between treatment of black and white offenders does notnecessarily equate tofairness or appropriateness, and we should strive forjustice rather than equality per se in recognition that society is notequal. This is acomparative exercise where quality meansthatsameness is notnecessarily desirable,and justice may demand some differentiation on groundsof race in order to treat all people equitably(Pinder). For example, in relation tothe employment point above, recognising the inequalities in the labour market Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com notes, the challenge for the criminal justice system is to discover at what point negotiated differentiation becomes an imposed discrimination. We need to distinguish between notions of process and outcome; justice and fairness in the way laws are administered does not necessarily make them fair in and of themselves. Thus, there exists discrimination on a broad level within the criminal justice system, which needs to be recognised and addressed at the decision-making level. As advocates, it is necessary to address both the administration of the system with regard to race, but also the policies themselves, and what is necessary to ensure that treatment throughout the system is fair. and therefore not unduly discriminating against those who are unemployed during sentencing may help to furtherfairness overall. As Van Dykenotes, thechallenge for the criminal justice system is to discover at what point negotiateddifferentiation becomes an imposed discrimination.We need to distinguishbetween notionsofprocess and outcome; justice and fairness in the way laws are administered does not necessarily make themfair inandof themselves.Thus,there exists discrimination on a broad levelwithin the criminal justicesystem,which needs to be recognised andaddressed at the decision-making level. As Von Hirschadvocates, it is necessary to address both theadministration of the system withregard to race,but also the policiesthemselves, and what is necessary to ensure that treatment throughout thesystem is fair. The fact of the matter, however, is that ethnic minorities do notcare whatreasonsunderpinthe discrimination they are suffering, whether it be due tobroader socio-economic factors or whether it issues directly from the personthey are dealingwith (Waters). The result is a lack of legitimacy in their eyes,attributed to the criminal justice system as a whole, resulting in blackdefendants being more likely to pleadnot guilty and to optfor the Crown court(Von Hirsch),thus furtherincreasingtheir propensity to be sentencedseverely. The problem becomes perpetual:if the justice system is viewed asinequitable it will breed defianceamong those who feel they are not beingtreated fairly, resulting in afurtherhike in the overrepresentation ofethnicminorities within the system. If the system is to made to operate equitably in relation to race it will require a tall order of reforms. Whilst direct and institutional racism can be addressed by ethnic minority recruitment drives within the police force, and racial awareness trainingfor all criminal justiceofficials, the broadersocial-economic issues will require change in politicaland social policy(Hood and Shute). Whatis clearis that race is a covertissue;a difficult problem to attemptto address as so few are willing toacknowledge its existenceoutright(Bosworth). Thus perhaps most pertinentwould be to increase awareness of the prevalenceofbroaderforms of indirectdiscrimination and social inequality and to attempt to keep these concerns in Oxbridge Essayswww.oxbridgeessays.comOxbridge Essays www.oxbridgeessays.com mind so that decisions at all stages can, at least as much as is possible, be made equitably.

Life After Death :: essays research papers

What is going to happen to us when we will die? Some people never considered what it could happen to them after life. For many people, death is a redoubtable event because they do not know what to expect after their death. However, other persons, such as religious people are conscious of what to expect after their death because of their beliefs. Each religion has different ideas and different ways of looking life. Death, therefore, is viewed by different religions in many ways. Although, different religions have a distinct conception of death, they all have something in common: they all give hope to people. Among all different religions in the world, four of the most common ones - Catholic, Jewish, Islamic, and Hindu- view death in different ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One way in which death can be viewed comes across the Catholic religion. The Catholic believers look life after death in a prospective of three different worlds, such as Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise according to the deeds committed during life. If a person during his or her lifetime committed any sins, this person’s next world will be the Hell. The traditional view in which people refer to hell can be found in the book written by Dante Alighieri, â€Å"La Divina Commedia†. The book states that the formation of Hell was given by the crash of Lucifer (the angel that wanted to be better than God) from the sky onto the earth. Crashing on the Earth in Jerusalem, his head formed an upside down cone inside the Earth. This is where is located the Hell. In the Hell, people pay for their sins with different penitences (12-13). For instance, a person that committed homicide will freeze in a lake frozen by the breath of Satan (XXXIV canto). If a person during h is or her life commits any sins but asks for forgiveness, then he or she will go to the Purgatory. The purgatory is represented by an island with a mountain (23). One source states that â€Å"Purgatory is very similar to Hell; the main difference is that one will eventually be released from torture. The souls that go in the Purgatory are tortured with fire. These souls remain in purgatory until they become sufficiently purified to enter heaven†(2). For example, if a soul in the purgatory asks for forgiveness and pays the punition with some tests, the soul will be released and moved immediately to Heaven (2).

David by Michelangelo vs Bernini

Nudity is divine beauty form which can't be translated as profane. Davit's proportions and expressions represents a typical of Michelangelo work. It depicts self control as well as tension at the same time. As from what I have described, Michelangelo David somewhat characterize and symbolize perfectly on Florentine feeling. During that time, Florence was going through some difficult time. Because they were a major political force in Italy at that time, Florence was feared that they will dominate against Rome. The city then comes alert and ready to face continual threats.David represented as a heroic male model of courage. David delivers a strong message of his inner spiritual strength which can proved that they are more effective than a man's strength. He showed us that his faith in God has saved him, not because his own strength but it is all by God (â€Å"The Lord is my strength and my shield. â€Å"). Florentine picturing themselves as David fighting against the Giant â€Å"Rom an†. The statue representing their feelings become the civic piece of the City of Florence which represents the Florentine pride.The next David that I'm going to discuss is David in the period of Italian Baroque done by Giant Lorenz Bernie. It was done between 1623 to 1624, sculpted by Bernie at the age of 25. Just LA 121 -LOL Linda Lieu like Michelangelo, Bernie is an artist who worked in a variety of mediums, but sculpting is his passion. Not Just that, both artists sculpted the same biblical hero David on his fight against Giant Goliath. Looking at the two Davis, both artists visualized different moment and feeling into their sculpture, even though it comes from the same story.Michelangelo gives a story before the Giant Goliath approached, while Bernie captures right on the moment of battle, a man of dynamic mid-action. He represents David on his maximum torque, his torso is twisted at the very back ready to release his stone, making him to a diagonal postures that fills wi th energy. The sculpture has the characteristics of Italian Baroque art, they are dynamic in composition, theatrical setting, full of motions and emotions. Almost like a typical of Hellenic sculpture.The energy and ram that the artist show doesn't only come from the gestures but it pictured clearly on Davit's expressions as well. He is pushing his eye brow together depicts such a great determination, and concentration. The way he is biting his lips also create a great tension to the scene. The whole physical movement and gestures is known as Baroque moment, a time when the action has been captured in mid-narration. Looking from the gestures and all the motions that David presented it is somewhat telling the viewer the emotional that relates to the battle between churches.As during the 1 517 there was a shifting of Catholic teaching known as Protestant Reformation under the leadership of Martin Luther. He was displeased with the Catholic churches as well as the leaders and their life style. As a result he break away from the former Catholic churches and established a new Christianity known as Protestantism. After the Protestant Reformation, there is a gap between the Catholic and Protestant. Many of the Catholics began to follow Luther and become Protestant. Novitiate Selling Japer 03241224During the mid 16th century throughout 17th century, the Catholics began to acts theological campaign lead by the Pope in Rome, known as the Catholic Counter Reformation. The goal is to inspire the population with the work of art and architecture and pursued them to stay faithful with Catholic church and bring them back. The David by Bernie perhaps telling the viewer the way the Catholic churches felt as they were battling against Luther to win people back. In conclusion, both artists specialized their talent on sculpting even though they do work with other types of medium.They depicts the same story from the bible of David fighting against Goliath. Michelangelo tells a story of David waiting for Goliath approach in a calm standing contrasts pose yet aware of his surrounding. This over 14 feet statue stand as a civic pride representing Florentine pride. While Bering's David captures the Baroque moment of Davit's mid action unleashing his slingshot. The sculptures bring so much motion and energy compare to Michelangelo David. The statue represent how the Catholic churches felt as they battle against the Luther. MALL Citations:

Environmental Racism Essay

Melissa Checker’s Polluted Promises: Environmental Racism and the Search for Justice in a Southern Town (2005) New York: New York University Press. Is one of checker’s best books and has gained fame over the times. Scholars have argued that this novel is set up in an environment which is imbalanced. Environmental inequity is evident in the lives of the leaders who are the main characters in the book. The author comes in to give solutions to the chaos that exist in this Augusta Georgia setting. The ethnographic account of this book shows the struggles faced in urban centers. These are mainly countries in the African region in the third world country. The writer further illustrates the extent of inequality that exists in these countries. A lot of emphasis rests on the resentment that the African Americans receive. This is further coupled with apartheid and the underclass level that they are put in. the book lays down goals to try and unveil the response of other citizens to the lifestyle of the blacks. The strength of the polluted promise is seen with the achievement of information about the treatment of Africans. The information that comes out shows racial separation and shows that the attitude towards the Africans is experienced in all the spheres including politics (p. 12). Racism is a serious offence that is seen to be covered in the book. Checker explains that existence of classes is a more evil way of segregating some people. This may be true but the fact still remains that racism is going on in this society. The leadership actually fights to cover racism by saying that classes are rather more serious. This is supported by Wilson’s hidden agenda ideas. The gap in this society exists in terms of wealth. The white are seen to have a lot of wealth compared to the black urban poor. This is supported by Wilson’s findings. The ethnographic account of this book dwells a lot on the overflow of racism in almost all the activities of the community. Political arena is also caught up in identity politics in which people form factions. This further influence the way resources are distributed in the society. This book displays possibility of arriving at a safe destination. This comes in the proposal of having convergence in the systems. Environmentalism and civil rights and new forms of society movements are the key aspects to be embraced in forming the convergence. Such a unitary community is characteristic of equality and love amongst all the citizens (p. 33). The environment is further displayed to have more challenges. Checker uncovers them as to include: problems faced while working with experts of the environment and the technical talk of experts. Another challenge seen is on building lasting relationship with protection agencies. Alliances and coalition formation is another challenge that exist in the society as explained by the author. Checker’s work further supports environmental injustice by its summary on politics, economic decisions like resource distribution and human relations. People are seen to compromise on the environmental justice in all these aspects. This is what makes the book; polluted promises a rich ethnography. Source Melissa Checker. (2005). Polluted Promises. New York: New York University Press